Now You See Me, Now You Don’t: Using LLMs to Obfuscate Malicious JavaScript
Effective Phishing Campaign Targeting European Companies and Organizations
LDAP Enumeration: Unveiling the Double-Edged Sword of Active Directory
See all Unit 42 Threat Research
Table of content
Cloud Security

What Is Personal Data?

5 min. read
Table of content

Personal data is any information that can be used to identify, either directly or indirectly, a living individual.  The concept is central to data protection and privacy regulations and aims to safeguard individuals' rights and ensure responsible handling of their information. Personal data includes obvious identifiers such as names, addresses, and Social Security numbers, as well as online identifiers like IP addresses, email addresses, and cookie IDs. Personal data also encompasses less apparent information that, when combined with other data points, can lead to the identification of a person.

Personal Data Explained

Personal data comprises various types of information, which can be categorized into direct and indirect identifiers. Direct identifiers can uniquely identify an individual without additional information. Indirect identifiers include data points like birthdates, postal codes, and job titles that may not singularly identify a person but can do so when combined with other data.

In the digital realm, personal data expands to include online identifiers like IP addresses and device IDs, as well as behavioral data such as browsing history and purchase records. Additionally, biometric data, which encompasses unique physical characteristics like fingerprints and facial patterns, is considered personal data due to its capacity for identification.

The handling and processing of personal data are governed by data protection regulations, which outline principles and requirements for organizations to ensure the privacy and security of individuals' information.

Principles of Personal Data Protection

  • Obtaining consent
  • Ensuring data accuracy
  • Implementing security measures
  • Complying with data subject rights (the right to access, rectification, and erasure)

Personal Data Across Various Legislations

The definition and scope of personal data can vary across different legislation and regulations, leading to distinct requirements for data protection and privacy. For example, the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) defines personal data as any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person, encompassing direct and indirect identifiers, as well as online identifiers. GDPR also distinguishes between nonsensitive and sensitive personal data, imposing more stringent protection measures on the latter.

On the other hand, the United States has a sectoral approach to data protection, with various federal and state-level regulations addressing certain industries or types of data. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) focuses on protected health information (PHI), while the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) has a broader scope, covering personal information associated with a consumer or household.

In regions like the Asia-Pacific, countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Australia have data protection laws, each with unique definitions and requirements for handling personal data. Organizations operating globally must remain aware of and comply with the relevant legislation in each jurisdiction, ensuring that their data protection policies and practices align with the regulatory frameworks governing personal data.

Understanding Identifiability

Identifiability is the quality of data that enables the recognition or association of information with an individual. Identifiers can be direct or indirect, with direct identifiers explicitly pointing to a person and indirect identifiers requiring additional information to establish the linkage.

Identifiers

Common identifiers include names, Social Security numbers, addresses, and phone numbers. But numerous other data points can serve as identifiers, such as vehicle registration numbers, unique device IDs, and employee IDs.

Online Identifiers

Online identifiers are digital markers that can be traced back to an individual. Examples include email addresses, IP addresses, cookie IDs, and device fingerprints. As the internet plays an increasingly significant role in daily life, online identifiers have become essential in determining identifiability.

Other Identifying Factors

In some cases, combinations of seemingly nonidentifying information can lead to identifiability. For instance, a person's job title, employer, and work location might be enough to pinpoint their identity when cross-referenced with other data sources. Contextual information, such as geolocation data or behavioral patterns, can also contribute to identifiability.

Uncertainty in Identifying Personal Data

If there’s doubt about whether information qualifies as personal data, organizations should exercise caution and treat the data as if it’s personal. By following best practices for data protection and privacy, organizations minimize the risk of noncompliance with data protection regulations and reduce the likelihood of unauthorized access or disclosure. It's always advisable to consult with legal or data protection experts when facing uncertainty about the classification of personal data.

Important Factors When Determining Personal Data

As it turns out, the seemingly simple concept of personal data involves a range of factors and conditions. In essence, whether a piece of information qualifies as personal data can depend on several key aspects, each contributing to a comprehensive understanding of what personal data encompasses. The following key points provide more granular insight into this concept.

Relevance to an Individual

The information must relate to the individual, which involves considering factors such as the content of the information, the purpose for which it’s processed, and the potential impact on the individual.

Potential for Identification

Even if an individual isn’t immediately identifiable from a piece of data, it can still qualify as personal data if that person can be identified by considering additional information, either held by the data controller or likely to come into their possession.

Pseudonymisation and Anonymization

Pseudonymised data is treated as personal data, where identifiers are replaced to obscure individual identities but could still be used to re-identify a person. In contrast, data rendered fully anonymous and can’t be used to identify a person aren’t considered personal data.

  • Inaccuracy: Personal data remains so even if it’s inaccurate or pertains to a different individual, as it 'relates to' the individual identified.
  • Technology-Neutral: The format or medium holding the data, the technology used to process it, and the storage method (paper, IT system, video surveillance, or similar storage) don’t influence whether it’s considered personal data.

How Is Understanding Personal Data Beneficial?

In the global digital economy, several legal frameworks, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe, govern the management of personal data. Understanding what constitutes personal data is the first step to ensuring compliance with regulations. Noncompliance can result in substantial penalties, reputation damage, and customer trust loss.

Recognizing personal data is also pivotal for implementing appropriate data security measures. By identifying what constitutes sensitive information, organizations can take the necessary steps to safeguard it. This can include employing techniques such as encryption, managing access controls, and securing data storage methods. Effectively, understanding personal data allows organizations to better shield themselves against data breaches and protect their stakeholders' interests.

Understanding the nature of personal data also supports the principle of data minimization — a fundamental tenet of many data protection laws. This involves only collecting, processing, and storing the minimum amount of data needed for a given purpose. By doing so, organizations can reduce the potential risks associated with data breaches and further align with regulatory requirements.

While protecting personal data is crucial, it's equally important to acknowledge its potential for deriving valuable insights. Personal data can provide a wealth of knowledge when handled ethically and in compliance with regulations. These insights can inform business decisions, drive marketing strategies, and guide product development. Balancing this potential with privacy considerations is a core challenge for modern businesses that starts with a fundamental understanding of what personal data entails.

Personal Data Security Tools

Data protection solutions are essential for organizations to maintain their data security and privacy commitments. Two key industry technologies that contribute to a robust data security posture are data security posture management (DSPM) and data detection and response (DDR).

DSPM Solutions

Data security posture management solutions focus on proactively identifying and mitigating risks within an organization's data environment. They provide advanced data discovery and classification capabilities, scanning, analyzing, and classifying both structured and unstructured data residing in the cloud. By prioritizing data according to risk, DSPM solutions enable organizations to apply appropriate protection mechanisms and access controls. Furthermore, they help align security measures with regulatory requirements through proactive data classification and static risk analysis capabilities, ensuring compliance with data privacy laws and directives.

Data Detection and Response Solutions

Data detection and response solutions complement DSPM by offering real-time threat detection and response capabilities. They continuously monitor data interactions and promptly identify unusual patterns that may indicate potential security threats. Upon detection, DDR solutions trigger alerts, allowing teams to mitigate risks and prevent unauthorized data exfiltration, enhancing personal data security.

By integrating DSPM and DDR solutions, organizations can achieve a comprehensive view of their data security posture, allowing them to detect anomalies and promptly respond to threats. This unified approach to static and dynamic risk monitoring reduces both the likelihood and the impact of data breaches, improving the protection of personal data.

Personal Data FAQs

Privacy by design is a proactive approach to incorporating data protection principles into the development and implementation of products, services, and processes. It emphasizes the need to embed privacy considerations from the outset, rather than as an afterthought. Key principles include data minimization, purpose limitation, transparency, and user-centric design.
Data minimization focuses on limiting the collection and storage of personal data to the minimum necessary to achieve a defined purpose. This principle encourages organizations to gather only relevant, adequate, and essential data, reducing the risk associated with handling excessive amounts of personal information. Data minimization helps prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, and noncompliance with privacy regulations.
Purpose limitation restricts the processing of personal data to explicit, legitimate, and specified purposes. Organizations must clearly define the objectives for collecting personal data and refrain from using it for unrelated or incompatible purposes. This principle ensures that individuals are informed about why their data is being processed and promotes trust between users and organizations.
Transparency is a fundamental aspect of privacy by design that requires organizations to openly communicate their data processing practices to individuals. This includes providing accessible, clear, and concise information about data collection, usage, storage, and sharing. Transparency enables individuals to make informed decisions about their data privacy and helps organizations demonstrate compliance with data protection regulations.
User-centric design prioritizes the needs, preferences, and rights of individuals when developing products, services, and processes. This approach involves integrating privacy features and controls that are easy to understand and use, enabling users to exercise their data protection rights effectively. By adopting a user-centric design, organizations can foster trust, enhance user satisfaction, and ensure that privacy is an integral component of their operations.

Categories of personal data typically fall to two main groups — sensitive personal data and nonsensitive personal data. Sensitive personal data includes information about an individual's race, ethnicity, political opinions, religious beliefs, trade union membership, genetics, biometrics, health, sex life, or sexual orientation.

Nonsensitive personal data encompasses less intrusive information such as name, address, email, and phone number. Different legal requirements and security measures may apply depending on the category of personal data being processed.

Unstructured paper records refer to physical documents containing information that isn’t organized in a structured format, such as free-form text, handwritten notes, or drawings. Despite being non-digital, these records can still contain personal data and must be managed and protected according to relevant data protection regulations. Organizations must ensure proper storage, access control, and disposal of unstructured paper records containing personal data to minimize the risk of unauthorized access, disclosure, or data breaches.
Consent is a fundamental concept in data protection, referring to the informed, explicit, and voluntary agreement given by an individual for the processing of their personal data. Consent must be freely given, specific, and unambiguous, with clear affirmative action from the data subject. Organizations must inform individuals about the purpose, scope, and duration of data processing and respect their rights to withdraw consent at any time. Obtaining valid consent is crucial to comply with data protection regulations and maintain user trust.

A natural person refers to a living human being, as opposed to a legal entity such as a corporation or an organization. In the context of data protection and privacy regulations, the term "natural person" is used to emphasize that the rules and principles apply to the protection of an individual's personal data and privacy rights. Distinguishing natural persons from legal entities clarifies the scope and applicability of data protection regulations, ensuring that the focus remains on safeguarding the privacy and security of living individuals' information.

Under the UK GDPR, an “identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier or to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person.”

A Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) is a systematic evaluation process designed to identify and mitigate potential privacy risks associated with the processing of personal data in a project, product, or service. PIAs help organizations ensure compliance with data protection regulations, promote transparency, and integrate privacy principles into their operations. A PIA typically involves identifying data flows, assessing privacy risks, evaluating the necessity and proportionality of data processing, and implementing measures to reduce or eliminate identified risks.
The right of access, also known as the right to information, is a data subject's entitlement to obtain information about the processing of their personal data from the data controller. This right enables individuals to verify the lawfulness of data processing and, if necessary, exercise additional data protection rights, such as the rights to rectification, erasure, or restriction. Organizations must provide clear and transparent information about the processing activities, including the purposes, categories of data, recipients, retention periods, and any automated decision-making processes involved.
The right to be informed is a fundamental data protection principle that emphasizes transparency and communication between organizations and individuals regarding the processing of personal data. It requires organizations to provide clear, concise, and accessible information about how they collect, use, and store personal data. Essential details include the purposes of processing, data retention periods, any recipients or third-party sharing, and the individual's rights concerning their data. By fulfilling the right to be informed, organizations demonstrate compliance with data protection regulations, promote trust, and empower individuals to make informed decisions about their data privacy.
The right to be forgotten, also known as the right to erasure, is a data protection principle that grants individuals the power to request the deletion of their personal data from a data controller's records. This right generally applies when the data is no longer necessary for the original purpose, the individual withdraws consent, or the data processing is unlawful. Organizations must comply with such requests unless they have a legitimate reason to retain the data, such as legal obligations or public interest. The right to be forgotten helps individuals exercise control over their personal data and ensures responsible data handling practices.
Pseudonymised data is still considered personal data because it involves replacing identifiable information with artificial identifiers or pseudonyms, which can be traced back to the individual with the use of additional information. Although pseudonymisation provides a level of protection, it doesn’t completely anonymize the data. Consequently, pseudonymised data remains subject to data protection regulations, and organizations must implement appropriate security measures to safeguard the data and prevent unauthorized re-identification of individuals.
Anonymized data refers to information that has been processed in a way that eliminates the possibility of identifying an individual, even with the use of additional information. Unlike pseudonymised data, anonymized data is no longer considered personal data and isn't subject to data protection regulations. Achieving anonymization, though, can be challenging. It requires removing all identifiable elements and ensuring that re-identification isn't possible through data aggregation or linking with other datasets.
Information about deceased individuals is generally not considered personal data under most data protection regulations, as these laws typically focus on protecting the privacy of living individuals. Some jurisdictions, however, may have rules governing the handling of information about deceased persons. It’s essential for organizations to be aware of and comply with relevant regulations in their jurisdiction and maintain ethical practices when processing data related to deceased individuals.

Information about organizations isn't classified as personal data, as it doesn't directly relate to identifiable living individuals. Examples of organizational information include company names, addresses, phone numbers, and financial data.

While organizational data isn't subject to personal data protection regulations, it may still be sensitive and require appropriate security measures. Organizations should implement controls to protect their proprietary information, intellectual property, and trade secrets from unauthorized access or disclosure.

EXPLORE MORE

Get the latest news, invites to events, and threat alerts